Department of Old and New Testament

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Embodied desire : Song of Songs and body theology
(Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 2018-03) Joubert, Odile; Claassens, L. Juliana M.; Stellenbosch University. Faculty of Theology. Dept. of Old and New Testament.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: South Africans are confronted on a daily basis with undeniable power structures shaped by patriarchy, demenial language, gender inequality, cultures, traditions and ideology which not only victimises the oppressed, but also victimising the oppressors themselves. These acts of victimisation and injustice are not simply shaped by history and its abusive Body Theology, but are spurred on by a distorted Body-and-Sexual Theology and the abuse of biblical texts. Social behaviour as found in the small town of Beaufort West, riddled with various challenges, is shaped and even ‘scripted’ by perceptions, internalised language and ideologies, normalised and passed on within the community. The impact of this pre-determined and ‘script’ identity markers, specifically of the Beaufort West community, is clearly seen in the manner in which individuals and groups are categorised, sexual expectations are presented and traditional morality is shaped by personal preference. The normalisation of social hierarchy, patriarchy, gender inequality, demenial language and sexual expectations pre-determines humanly well-being, value and morality as no individual is completely free from ideology and its misrepresentation. The normalisation of such ‘scripted’ behaviour in a community such as Beaufort West, flowing from societal influence, is not a twenty-first century phenomenon, but is deeply rooted in the biblical and historical comprehension of the human body. Contemporary individuals share a great amount with ancient individuals when dealing with social normality, hierarchy, patriarchy, humanly well-being and the intoxicating power of desire in human lives. A great amount of socialisation processes’ is involved in desire which is more than often ‘scripted’ by the media through various onslaughts of movies, advertisements and even cultural messages. It is by understanding the shaping and complexity of human well-being and desire that the unquestionable value of the Song of Songs comes into play, as the study of the Biblical text explores the importance of desire and its force in life. The importance of the Song of Songs for the contemporary world lies in its exploration of desire, Body Theology, gender and sexuality, investigating, probing and emphasising vulnerability. Such an understanding of the Song of Songs leads to a morality that is not legalistic in nature but that is receptive to the contemporary world and its legislations. The aim of this study is therefore to explore the history of Body-and-Sexual Theology, too grasp an understanding of the complexity of sex, sexuality and gender, too wrestle with the Song of Songs and its wasf texts and thus striving to see if such a study is of any significance to an analogously ‘scripted’ twenty-first century community such as Beaufort West. The importance of human well-being is not to be ignored as such well-being is deeply intertwined with human dignity, fighting for a healthy, God-intended life and society. As bodyselves humanity is created to experience cognitive, physical, emotional and spiritual needs, striving for intimate communion with God, the natural world and fellow humans.
Encountering the female voice in the Song of Songs : reading the Song of Songs for the dignity of Kenyan women
(Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 2014-12) Juma, Dorcas Chebet; Claassens, L. Juliana M.; Stellenbosch University. Faculty of Theology. Dept. of Old and New Testament
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This study investigates one of the central aspects of a Kenyan woman’s identity, namely the notion of sexuality, which unfortunately also underlies numerous socio-economic and developmental challenges currently confronting Kenyan women. The research shows that in Kenya, patriarchal ideologies are used to control the sexuality of women in the name of ‘our culture’. Thus, it is and has been difficult for many Kenyan women to live with dignity as beings equally created in the image and likeness of God. The study, therefore, sought to identify, expose, criticize, destabilize and to deconstruct patriarchal ideologies that deny Kenyan women the right to live with dignity. Patriarchal ideologies that have been used to mute the voices of Kenyan women on matters of sex and sexuality are challenged by introducing the voices of Kenyan women. The latter is done with reference to poetry that reflects the voices and experiences of Kenyan women as a means of expressing who they really are in the midst of a society that silences them. It is shown that, by means of poetry, the full power and energy of these women may be mobilized. Moreover, the voices and experiences of Kenyan women offer a contextual re-reading of the Song of Songs for their dignity. The study presents the female voice in the Song of Songs (a text from a male pen) as responding in a new way to the patriarchal Old Testament society on matters of sex and sexuality. In the process, a twofold strategy is proposed with which negative perceptions of the sexuality of women in the worldview of Kenya may be addressed: First, this study proposes that it is important to purposefully steer conversations regarding issues of sex and sexuality. The latter is done in the conviction that this is one way of creating a platform for addressing other gender-based injustices that deny Kenyan women the right to live with dignity. Second, by focusing on Kenyan poetry, as well as on the female voice in the Song of Songs, there is a possibility of reconstructing positive aspects of the sexuality of Kenyan women, which may allow them to live with dignity. To achieve the aim of this study, to re-read the Song of Songs for the dignity of Kenyan women, an African Women’s Theological approach is used within the broader context of feminist and womanist approaches to the Song. Through an African Women’s approach to the Song of Songs, the study asks how the female voice that spoke boldly in the patriarchal setting of the Old Testament can also be liberating in the Kenyan patriarchal setting. The female voice in Song of Songs presents issues of sex and sexuality in a new way. As such, it is proposed that the latter voice, read through the hermeneutical lens of Kenyan women’s poetry or poetry on Kenyan women, has the potential to inform and therefore to transform the patriarchal setting of the Kenyan society. It is only if Kenyan women are empowered to negotiate safe sex and to express their sexuality on their own terms and conditions, that this will be fully realized.
For king and country: an ideological critical study of covenant in Jeremiah 11:1-17 and Kingship in Jeremiah 22:1-23:8 as examples of cultural violence
(Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 2019-12) Gertzen, Marius; Claassens, L. Juliana M.; Stellenbosch University. Faculty of Theology. Dept. of Old and New Testament.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This study offers an ideological critical investigation of the notion of covenant in Jeremiah 11:1-17 and kingship in Jeremiah 22:1-23:8 as examples of cultural violence. Employing the theoretical framework of Johan Galtung with reference to direct, structural and cultural violence, the ideological-literary aspects and ideological-contextual aspects of the world in, behind and in front of these texts are explored. In Chapter 2 of this study the theoretical framework of Galtung pertaining to direct, structural and cultural violence is critically discussed. Cultural violence as exemplified by, for instance, religion and ideology is shown by Galtung to justify or legitimise direct or structural violence. Cultural violence makes direct and structural violence look, even feel, right – or at least not wrong. Cultural violence thus plays a crucial role in legitimising acts of direct violence, and rendering the fact of structural violence acceptable in society. In Chapter 3, the world of Jeremiah is investigated. Textual aspects of structure, genre and the Deuteronomistic source informing Jeremiah are brought into conversation with the historical, social and religious aspects of the world of Jeremiah. In Chapter 4 the notion of covenant is defined and interrogated. After offering a diachronic as well as a synchronic analysis of covenant in the Hebrew Bible in its Ancient Near Eastern (ANE) context, this chapter addresses the way in which covenant features in Jeremiah 11:1-17. This includes the ideological-literary manifestation of judgement; the text’s close affinity to the Deuteronomistic ideological worldview; and Jeremiah 11’s correspondence with the temple sermon of Jeremiah 7. These aspects are then used to investigate the ways in which the temple in Jerusalem can be perceived as an example of structural violence and the process of the centralisation of the cult as an example of direct violence. Thereafter, covenant as cultural violence is explored in terms of the covenantal ideology of election; the covenantal ideology of Zion; and the covenantal ideology of the Deuteronomistic. Lastly, it is demonstrated how the direct, structural and cultural violence of covenant in Jeremiah 11:1-17 are closely related to each other by utilising the violence triangle and violence strata image of Galtung. In Chapter 5 of this study the notion of kingship is defined and interrogated. The monarchical state is identified as a theoretical vehicle that is useful for investigating kingship in Israel. The synchronic focus of kingship on divine election and the upholding of justice in the ANE and Israel is investigated, where after diachronic aspects of the divine election and the upholding of justice of selected kings of Israel are explored in conjunction with aspects of direct and structural violence pertaining to the monarchical states during the reign of these kings. The direct violence of the monarchical state of Jehoiakim is discussed in terms of the practise of corvée labour, as well as the structural violence of the monarchical state pertaining to functions of the state as introduced by Solomon but continuing to the time of Jehoiakim. The theology of kingship is discussed especially with reference to the way in which the future promise of a just king is used in Jeremiah 22:1-23:8 to save the institution of kingship. Mention is also made of how the royal psalms can be seen as the popular discourse that kept the elective position of the king before YHWH alive, even if the prophets saw this relationship as a thing of the past. Lastly, the direct, structural and cultural violence of kingship in Jeremiah 22:1-23:8 are once again brought into conversation with each other by employing the violence triangle and violence strata image of Galtung. Finally, the study shows how an understanding of the theoretical framework of Galtung regarding violence may help one to better understand the direct, structural and cultural violence of the ideology of Apartheid in a contemporary South African context. The study concludes by showing the dangers of an inerrant view of Scripture, but also cautions against limiting the violence of Scripture to only texts that contain visible direct violence.
Geweld en Patriargie in Esegiel 16 en 23 in die Suid-Afrikaanse konteks van geweld teen vroue en kinders
(Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 2014-04) Gertzen, Marius; Claassens, L. Juliana M.; Stellenbosch University. Faculty of Theology. Dept. of Old and New Testament.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This thesis is an ideological critical analysis of Ezekiel 16 and 23 in the South African context of Intimate Partner Violence. The ideology of patriarchy and the ideology of violence were used as a hermeneutical framework in the interpretation of the occurrences patriarchy and violence in Ezekiel 16 and 23. The ideological critical analysis of Ezekiel 16 and 23 consist of an extrinsic and intrinsic analysis. Accordingly it is assumed that the presumed audience is the ruling class in exile. In the extrinsic analysis the semantic, syntactic, and morphological occurrences of the marriage metaphor, adultery/prostitution, sexuality, violence metaphors, rape, and shame in Ezekiel 16 and 23 was researched. It was found that adultery/prostitution fulfills a central role in these texts. Therefore, the sexuality in the texts operates as a transition to the violence in Ezekiel 16 and 23. The research of the social context of the abovementioned themes made it clear that the covenant making aspect of the marriage is an important theme in Ezekiel 16 and 23, and that adultery is seen in a worse light than prostitution because of the detrimental effect adultery had on the covenant part of the marriage. It was further found that sexuality was socially strictly controlled, and that the ideology of violence occurred among the ruling class as an honorable form of war. In the intrinsic analysis the rhetorical and theological power of the abovementioned themes was researched. It was found that the vehicle of the implicit patriarchy of the marriage has the ability to provide the tenor of the marriage metaphor namely the YHWH-Israel relationship (the covenant), with more rhetorical and theological power. In the proposals for a contextual reading of Ezekiel 16 and 23, the problem of a violent God was considered, arguing that the covenant creates a space for this understanding of God, but also that this divine image can by ethically reinterpreted in connection to the covenant. The idea of a violent God was further discussed in terms of the Theodicy question. An ideological critical analysis is able to acknowledge the anger of God, but also the anger of humans. In connection to Intimate Partner Violence the metaphors in Ezekiel 16 and 23 cannot be seen as innocent and ought to be critically evaluated.
Peace talks : towards an intercultural Bible study on 1 Samuel 25
(Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 2018-03) Dercksen, Elmarie; Claassens, L. Juliana M.; Stellenbosch University. Faculty of Theology. Dept. of Old and New Testament.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This study has the goal of constructing an Intercultural Bible Study on the story of Abigail in 1 Samuel 25, with an accompanying workbook, that has its goal the flourishing of communities. The point of departure of this study is the fragmented and culturally isolated communities of South African society, where the church is an important role player. Using a specific congregational context of Blaawbergstrand, the context is described, which forms the background of the study. By recounting the demographic, socio-economic and ecclesiastic circumstances of residents from this community, the contextual integrity of the study is maintained. The description provides insight in this community, which is a sufficient exemplar of a typically South African one. It illustrates the effects of rapid urbanization, the prevailing gap between rich and poor, and the church’s failure to contribute to concrete and lasting reconciliation in a country with a racial and racialist past. The description, in line with the feminist approach applied throughout this study, also underlines the plight of women in a patriarchal society. This study moreover offers an in-depth description of the nature and significance of an Intercultural Bible Study that builds on s the Contextual Bible Study as applied by the Ujamaa Centre for Community Development and Research. In particular the contribution of Intercultural Bible Study hermeneutics is considered, namely the value of intercultural, interpersonal contact between people, and the benefits of transformative reading, of which cultivating compassion is paramount. The Biblical text chosen for the development of an Intercultural Bible Study is the story of Abigail, as told in 1 Samuel 25. The female hero of the text, her prophetic words and proactive deeds of generosity, provides the reader with relevant topics for “peace talks”: she halts a war with provisions and diplomacy; she intercedes on behalf of others, showing genuine compassion; she acts outside of the demarcated borders expected of a woman of her time. The text is read with close attention to both literary criticism and feminist appreciation. The accent on food as instrument of inclusion is confirmed with the reading, and this is also appropriated in the workbook provided.
The Sin of Gibeah? : reading Judges 19 and Hosea 9-10 in the context of migration and trauma
(Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 2021-11-12) Fry, Alexiana Dawn; Claassens, L. Juliana M.; Stellenbosch University. Faculty of Theology. Dept. of Old and New Testament.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This dissertation explores an intertextual connection of the texts Judges 19 and Hosea 9-10 based on the phrase “the sin of Gibeah” through the methodological lenses of trauma hermeneutics and migration theory. With particular consideration of the impact of the Judean exile on texts not only in the exilic period, but also post-exilic, I propose in this study that the sin of Gibeah can best be understood as one of Othering. A central argument of this dissertation is that both Judges 19 and Hosea 9-10 can be read as stories of migration, as writing impacted by exile, depicting the horrors the community had experienced. In these texts, we find that the literary figures of the bodies of the women Gomer and the nameless Concubine are characters through whom the trauma of migration played out in order to make sense of the senseless for the community in the form of narratives. Yet, from the position of the authorship of both texts, this understanding is not necessarily to be condoned. The sin of Gibeah as Othering demands that the history of exile be told with all truth, with all horror, even as it calls many to account. The importance of these biblical narratives of migration is brought into sharper focus when read also in the context of contemporary narratives of migration. The role of trauma narratives as formative, enabling the re-making experience for both individuals and communities impacted by migrating, manifests in biblical as well as contemporary stories of migration. In exploring the intersection of trauma, migration, and gender in contemporary discussions on migration, specifically in my context of the United States, this study’s understanding of the sin of Gibeah as the sin of Othering continues to point the finger at those in power, asking if we too will bear witness.
Tamar as victim of levirate marriage? : reading Genesis 38 within a Zulu cultural context of marriage
(Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 2017-03) Thabede, Slindile; Claassens, L. Juliana M.; Stellenbosch University. Faculty of Theology. Dept. of Old and New Testament.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Zulu society for the most part is deeply patriarchal in nature and rooted in male dominance that is supported by androcentric cultural beliefs and practices that have led to the oppression of women. Because of patriarchy, Zulu marriage for many women implies victimization and objectification. In particular, the inability to bear male children has resulted in the victimization of the wives that subsequently diminishes their worth as human beings and also has implications for their religious life. In this study, the story of Tamar as told in Genesis 38 is read in the context of the ostracism and oppression that many Zulu women continue to experience in marriage. Reading the story of Tamar, who can be described as a victim of levirate marriage gone wrong, by means of an African Feminist and a Postcolonial Feminist exegetical approach, this study proposes that the story of Tamar may offer Zulu women an alternative way of understanding their own situation, not just as victims, but as survivors as well. In Chapter 2 of this study, I explore Zulu culture and identity in relation to gender by venturing into the cultural folktales to discover the hidden oppression over its women. The purpose of this chapter is to show how cultural symbols like folktales reflect the culture of subjugation and domination over women. But, more importantly, I demonstrate how these folktales serve as a way of socialization of girls and the perpetuation of the male idealization of women in marriage. Furthermore, I show in this chapter how the dominant paradigm of Zulu life in relation to marriage to a great extent continues to centres on the necessity of procreation. I moreover show that the reality of infertility and barrenness and the social consequences reveal some of the layers of ambiguities within the Zulu context of marriage that is rooted in a patriarchal culture that oppresses women and is detrimental to their health. In Chapter 3 of this thesis, the story of Tamar will be read by means of an African Feminist approach that will employ the experience of Zulu women’s oppression in the context of marriage in order to expose the different practices that allow men to victimise, objectify and control women in the cultural marital context. And in Chapter 4 of this thesis, the same text will be read through the lens of a Postcolonial Feminist approach in which themes such as hybridity and mimicry will be used to explore the imperial elements in Genesis 38 when it will be shown how the character of Judah comes to represent Israel as the “coloniser” who is subjugating the Canaanite “Other”, Tamar. Reading Tamar’s story through an African Feminist as well as a Postcolonial Feminist lens affirms that subalterns like Tamar as also many Zulu women today do have a voice after all. Through this study, the possibility for the voices of Zulu women regarding their oppression they experience in terms of marriage is opened up. Female survivors of such oppression are called to help liberate the women of our culture by teaching them how one subverts the oppressive structures in order for every woman in the Zulu culture to flourish. This is a society in which Zulu men treat their women with the same dignity and respect that they themselves demand and which Zulu women are able to reach their full potential and not judged in terms of their ability of bringing a male child in the world.
Trampling on the poor : poverty as violence in Amos 2:6-8, 5:10-13 and 8:4-6
(Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 2020-04) Garande, Tatenda; Claassens, L. Juliana M.; Stellenbosch University. Faculty of Theology. Dept. of Old and New Testament.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Poverty is a global phenomenon that is complex and multi-dimensional. Since the early 1990s, Zimbabwe has been going through a serious socio-political and economic crisis that reached its peak during 2008-2009. Current conditions in Zimbabwe indicate that the crisis is not yet over. This socio-political and economic crisis has plunged the majority of Zimbabweans into an abyss of poverty. In their quest to find a solution to their poverty, many Zimbabweans have turned to the Church. In particular, the Prosperity Gospel promoted by two popular preachers, Immanuel Makandiwa of the United Family Interdenominational Church and Walter Magaya of Prophetic, Healing, and Deliverance Ministries, has appealed to many Zimbabweans who are deep in poverty. The Prosperity Gospel proclaimed by these pastors claim that prosperity is a blessing and a sign of faith while poverty is deemed a curse and a sign of lack of faith. Conversely, poverty is also depicted as a demon that has to be exorcised. This understanding of poverty poses a challenge because it turns a blind eye on the historical and economic policies that caused poverty not only in Zimbabwe but also in other parts of Africa. In our quest to understand poverty, the meaning we ascribe to the concept will determine how individuals, nations, organizations or the church will respond to and deal with this phenomenon. This study thus argues that poverty is violence against the poor and it is embedded in societal structures that benefit a few powerful elites at the expense of the weak and innocent poor. In addition, this study proposes that Prosperity Gospel is a form of cultural violence that legitimizes the structural violence associated with poverty. The study further argues that Prosperity Gospel is not peculiar to only Makandiwa and Magaya, but that the prophet Amos dethroned a similar kind of theological construction when he castigated the rich and powerful for violating the dignity and rights of the poor. Employing literary and rhetorical criticisms as exegetical tool, this study identifies hidden forms of violence in Amos 2:6-8, 5:7, 10-13 and 8:4-6 that emphasize the basic assumption of this study which is that poverty ought to be understood as violence against the poor.
Unmanned and unmade : uncovering violence, emasculation, and shame in Nahum 3
(Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 2024-02 ) O'Malley, Mel Baars; Claassens, L. Juliana M.; Stellenbosch University. Faculty of Theology. Dept. of Old and New Testament.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This dissertation explores the intersection of cultural trauma and masculinity in the book of Nahum to better understand the sexual violence described in the text. God’s rape of Nineveh, and by extension, the king of Assyria and his army of warriors, is deeply problematic. However, avoiding and ignoring this text misses an opportunity to understand the book of Nahum as a survival narrative, written in response to trauma and disaster in the Judean community. This violent portrayal offers a glimpse into the real experience of emasculation of male survivors of sexual trauma, not only in the past, but also in the present. Exploring what male survivors endure in Nahum provides particular insight into the experience of male survivors of Military Sexual Trauma (MST) today. This study seeks to illuminate the connections between warriors of the past and of the present who share common ground and to understand the loss of identity, both of maleness and of vocation, which ensues in the aftermath of rape. Nahum demonstrates the insidious power of patriarchy and the enduring problem of hegemonic masculinity. By exploring constructs of gender, it becomes clear that when a man, especially a warrior, is raped, either as a show of power or after being defeated on the battlefield, he undergoes an unmanning process. In essence, he is no longer a man. The experience of emasculation is traumatic and causes a male survivor to become isolated not only from God and others but also from himself. Neglecting Nahum’s story denies the reality concerning male rape, which remains hidden to this day. Consequently, survivors are often cut off from needed social support which could contribute to the recovery journey. Uncovering Nahum and its horrific violence is an opportunity to see spiritual and emotional wounds that have been buried for far too long. Interpreting the violence in this book through the lens of cultural trauma empowers the reader to better understand the male survivor’s journey including emasculation, shame, and isolation. With this knowledge unearthed, the journey of healing may become possible. For those with the courage to read it, Nahum’s survival story is, and has been, a teacher of trauma’s truths over the millennia. By reading Nahum and contemplating its implications for male survivors, the rarely discussed consequences of sexual violence against men can be more fully recognized and addressed.
Viewing ‘Krotoa’ through a Rahab Prism : a postcolonial feminist encounter
(Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 2020-10) Davis, Sheurl Valene; Claassens, L. Juliana M.; Stellenbosch University. Faculty of Theology. Dept. of Old and New Testament.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This thesis employs a hermeneutic of suspicion to reread the narratives of two underdog women characters, as it analyses the narrative world of Rahab in Joshua 2 and 6 and the story of Krotoa as portrayed in the 2017 film Krotoa side-by-side. This study argues that decolonising and deconstructing hegemonic interpretations of the biblical texts is the only way the Bible still may possess value to the marginalised. Insights from postcolonial feminist biblical interpretation are employed to show how these two very different narrative worlds collide with each another. To reflect on the stories of Rahab and of Krotoa, Musa Dube’s Rahab’s reading prism is used as a reading strategy to reread the narrative of Rahab as well as the portrayed character of Krotoa in the 2017 film Krotoa. Rahab’s character and portrayals are analysed by means of a postcolonial reading optic. Although most previous interpretations have portrayed Rahab as heroine as well as traitor, this study argues that Rahab was also the victim of the coloniser's pen, a literary construction of Israelite ideology. This study further employs postcolonial feminist film theory as an additional methodological approach to critique the imperial strategies employed in the portrayal of Krotoa in the film Krotoa (2017). Postcolonial feminist film theory shows how the portrayal of Krotoa in the film version possesses a specific form of power which could liberate and at the same time perpetuate imperialising interpretations and ideologies. Instead of revolutionising Krotoa in the history of South Africa by offering a life-giving portrayal of Krotoa, this study argues that the film has perpetuated elements of Afrikaner nationalism. Delineating the various portrayals of Krotoa exposed the patriarchal and imperial ideologies still present in the film especially with a practical application of Rahab’s reading prism. The central premise of this thesis is that both Rahab and Krotoa have much in common. This study, therefore, applies a hermeneutic of suspicion that prioritises alternative perspectives in the pursuit of a transformative understanding of these two women in contrast to their reputation and portrayals as traitors. This study argues that the two women have suffered under the rhetoric of God, glory, gold, and gender. The biblical narrative of Rahab and the film Krotoa (2017), as well as the historiographies that depict them, are a perfect example of how the imperial powers impose their control on foreign lands and on the bodies of women, who have been sacrificed on the altar of unity and imperial control. Moreover, this study explores the possibility that these two women were betrayed by their own people and the colonisers have done what they do best—employing the bodies of women who serve as the contact zones for colonisation. By interrogating, deconstructing, and re-interpreting these two characters, this study prioritises life-affirming interpretations and portrayals of both women. The study demonstrates how the chosen reading optic liberates Rahab and Krotoa from the yoke of imperial and patriarchal interpretations and portrayals.

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