Department of Ancient Studies

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Aeneas se onderwêreldse reis in illustrasie : ’n resepsie-historiese studie van tonele in Aeneïs VI
(Stellenbosch : University of Stellenbosch, 2006-03) Swanepoel, Liani Colette; Malan, C. A.; Cornelius, I.; University of Stellenbosch. Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences. Dept. of Ancient Studies.
Throughout the centuries artists have visualised the imaginative works of Publius Vergilius Maro in a variety of art forms. Paintings, frescoes, sculptures and even tapestries have made the wordscenes of his great epic, the Aeneid, concrete. The thesis investigates only the illustration of the epic in manuscripts and printed texts or translations. The illustrations of scenes in Book VI – the journey of Aeneas in the underworld – are studied using the reception-historical approach. This is to determine whether the illustrations of the Trojan hero’s journey in the underworld reflect the reception of the Aeneid in the different eras or periods. The illustrator is a “reader” of the Aeneid text or translation and consequently his/her illustration of a particular scene reflects his/her own visual interpretation thereof. Illustrations of Book VI in manuscripts like the Vergilius Vaticanus of late Antiquity and the mid- 15th century Riccardiana Vergilius of Apollonio di Giovanni are examined. A study of illustrations in printed texts or translations range from the 1502 Grüninger edition of Vergil edited by Sebastian Brant to the Book VI illustration of Thom Kapheim in a textbook published in 2001. The aim is to establish how illustrators associated with Book VI, interpreted it, how their environment and the spirit of the age influenced their visualisation and how their illustrations reflect the reception of the epic throughout the centuries. Such a study hopes to provide a contribution to Vergilian reception and Nachleben. In the process a better understanding can be obtained for the importance and changing role of Aeneid VI and the whole epic in different eras. It is found that the illustrators of the Aeneid – influenced by the different spirit of their times and environments – brought forth unique visual interpretations of scenes in Book VI that suggest a particular reception of the epic at that specific point of time. The illustrative spectrum of Book VI throughout the centuries can be summarised as follows: revival, allegorisation, pedagogic, realistic decoration and eventually increasingly unrealistic decoration. From late Antiquity to the beginning of the 21st century, the illustrative visualisation of the journey of Aeneas in the underworld indicates that there has always been a definitive response to Vergil and his epic.
Aspects of the family in Ancient Egypt
(Stellenbosch : University of Stellenbosch, 2002-12) Mbokazi, Jabulani Tadeus; Cornelius, I.; University of Stellenbosch. Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences. Dept. of Ancient Studies.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This study deals with the ancient Egyptian family. Cultural anthropology is used as a point of departure to reconstruct the daily lives of the ancient Egyptians. Cultural anthropology usually applies to living communities but most of the principles it uses are just as relevant in the study of a dead culture. The emphasis of this study is on the different cultural domains, which include education, religion, family livelihoods, family recreation, entertaimnent and travel and social organization and how these are interrelated. Most of our ancient Egyptian knowledge comes from the tombs of wealthy individuals, and thus incomplete since we have no record of how peasants perceived the world, as they could not afford a good burial. Other sources are the ancient documents and artefacts from town sites all associated with wealthy individuals. While peasants were too poor to send their children to school, wealthier Egyptians did send their children to school especially boys. Agriculture was central in ancient Egyptian life. The nobility and other higher classes depended on the toil of the peasant for basic commodities and food. The peasant families in the rural areas were unable to attend the lavish festivals in the cities. Their basic focus was centred on their homes, families and on the success of the harvest. The peasant had his own private god or gods to whom he could tum for aid or comfort in times of trouble. Surplus items of food, clothing, oil and such like could be used for barter for purchasing essential items for everyday living. During their spare time the Egyptian families entertained friends, engaged in the various pastimes and travel. The peasant, as providers of food, formed an important social base for the Egyptian state.
Ba'al and Seth : an investigation into the relationship of two gods, with reference to their iconography (ca. 1500 – 1000 BCE)
(Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 2013-12) Cox, Michael James; Cornelius, I.; Stellenbosch University. Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences. Dept. of Ancient Studies.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Although the traditional viewpoint of the Ancient Egyptian civilisation is one of isolation and self containment, in fact Egypt and Syro-Palestine had a long history of contact and interaction before the Late Bronze Age, albeit somewhat tenuous and ad hoc. The commencement of the New Kingdom in Egypt heralded a more vigorous period of exchange. This was largely due to the Egyptian policy of increased commercial activity and military campaigns in Syro-Palestine as well as the rising strength of the Asiatic peoples. At the personal level there was always a trend of Asiatics moving into Egypt in search of a better life, which opened the door for the Hyksos rule at the end of the Middle Bronze Age. This foreign rule was an affront on the dignity of the Egyptians. Thus, following numerous military campaigns much of Syro-Palestine was incorporated into the wider Egyptian political entity. In counterpoint to the situation in Egypt, Syro-Palestine was very far from isolated, situated in the open cultural landscape of Syria and Mesopotamia it was the very hub of the Ancient Near East. Inevitably there was considerable interaction, and throughout history, as even today, Syro-Palestine is a crossroads and melting pot of different peoples. At the forefront of any exchange were religious ideas, religious traditions were introduced and foreign gods were spread far and wide. The international nature of the gods seems to have been a characteristic of the Ancient Near East. In this scenario were the Egyptian god Seth and his counterpart the Syro-Palestinian god Baaal, each with a complex story, wherein the iconographical and textual evidence of the gods show much commonality. The association of Seth with Baaal in Egypt is clear, the name of Baaal being written with the Seth-animal determinative, whereas Syro-Palestine has the Mami stele from Ugarit. Major events shook the Ancient Near East ca. 1500-1000 BCE, Egypt reached its apogee and ruled the East; providing the most likely answer regarding the presence and worship of Seth in Syro-Palestine. Certainly Seth was present and worshipped, naturally the massive numbers of Egyptian military and diplomatic personnel required facilities for this practice. Since the earlier Hyksos rulers accepted and worshipped Seth this predicates on a continuum into the period in question. To summarize: Seth equals Baaal and Baaal equals Seth.
Baboons in Ancient Egyptian art : the significance of the baboon motif in the funerary art of the New Kingdom
(Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 2018-03) Pio, Helena; Cornelius, I.; Stellenbosch University. Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences. Dept. of Ancient Studies.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The New Kingdom of Egypt represented a period of imperial successes when Egypt became a world power. The country enjoyed political stability under Dynasty XVIII – XX and actively participated in international affairs. They undertook trade expeditions to Kush and Punt to obtain resources and exotic ware, amongst which counted foreign animals, including baboons (Papio hamadryas), which by this time, were not indigenous anymore. Egyptians were known to live in harmony with nature, deeply aware of their dependence on cyclical regeneration as perceived in the daily return of the sun and the life-sustaining annual inundation of the Nile. These events ensured that earthly life could continue in a relatively harsh environment. Egyptians were naturally inclined to view opposites as complementary; just as their country was made up of the fertile Nile valley and the barren sand deserts, the terrestrial and celestial were parts of the same continuum. The natural world could provide clues to the supernatural; by closely observing the behaviour of animals, identifying characteristics similar to, and differing from those of humans, they developed a mythical construct to explain the nature of the cosmos. Baboons intrigued the Egyptians; they were uncannily similar to humans, yet also difficult to fathom; jubilant, pensive, fierce and with a noticeable sexuality, the behaviour of these animals offered a wide scope for portraying attributes of the divine as well as aspirations harboured by humans. They symbolised true veneration by chattering in a secret language while welcoming the sun at dawn, their contemplative staring showed an ancient wisdom and justness, they viciously protected their domain and their virility signified the creative force of life. These concepts were all important in the Egyptian quest for both earthly and eternal life; praising the deities could induce them to be just and wise in dealing with humanity and ensure protection and procreation. Egyptians lived in preparation for life hereafter and viewed the tomb as a very important station that had to be adequately equipped to sustain and protect the body and ‘soul’ of the deceased in the underworld. This was achieved by developing a complex symbolically laden decoration program for the burial chamber, the coffin, the canopic jars and other funerary goods. It is in this private sphere of the Egyptian tomb that the baboon motif persistently features to promote the well-being of the deceased by symbolising piety, justice, protection and regeneration.
Beer as a signifier of social status in ancient Egypt with special emphasis on the New Kingdom period (ca. 1550-1069 BC) : the place of beer in Egyptian society compared to wine
(Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 2015-03) Klop, Damian; Cornelius, I.; Stellenbosch University. Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences. Dept. of Ancient Studies.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Some academics are of the generalist opinion that ancient Egyptian beer was only consumed by the lower classes because of its low social status. This is based on the generalization that individuals only consume alcoholic beverages matching the status of their social class. Therefore the lower classes consumed beer while the upper classes consumed an alcoholic beverage of higher status, i.e. wine. However, other academics are of the universalist opinion that Egyptian beer was universally consumed by all Egyptian social classes irrespective of the status of beer. This study aims to test the validity of these opposing academic opinions and also strives to understand how statements of status in Egyptian society were devised, and what they were conveying. This was achieved by determining the status of Egyptian beer and wine and then comparing them to the respective status of beer and wine drinkers in the New Kingdom period (c. 1550-1069) according to the factors of production, consumption, health, economic exchange & distribution, and religion. Use is made of an anthropological approach which allows the researcher to limit social bias and understand ancient Egyptian society on its own terms. Results of this study indicate that Egyptian beer had a much lower status than Egyptian wine and all social classes consumed beer while only the upper classes consumed wine. The generalist opinion, therefore, is falsified and the universalist opinion validated. The results also indicate that the upper classes justified their beer consumption by producing, consuming and exchanging an elite beer of higher status in a manner reminiscent of wine so that it compared more favourably with the status of their social classes. This study, therefore, not only settles an old academic dispute but also provides new insight into Egyptian beer.
Beneath the raptor’s wings : the avian composition grasping the symbol for eternity in Egypt
(Stellenbosch : University of Stellenbosch, 2008-03) Klop, Damian J.R.; Cornelius, I.; University of Stellenbosch. Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences. Dept. of Ancient Studies.
A particular motif in Egyptian art is that of avians. This is frequently depicted in a significant number and variety of visual sources from the tomb of Tutankhamun (KV 62) (1336-1327 BC) and other find contexts throughout Egyptian history from c. 3000 BC, but is little understood. The motif mostly depicts an avian creature with wings outstretched, talons grasping the Egyptian hieroglyph symbol for eternity (shen). In some instances the avian’s falcon or vulture body or parts of the body is/are replaced with parts of another creature, namely that of a snake, cobra, ram, human, duck, or a hieroglyph sign. A study was undertaken to assess how and why this avian motif was composed and what the function in Egyptian culture was. A manual search of published material for relevant visual sources depicting specific versions of the avian motif was undertaken and selected sources were indexed into a representative graphical database including one hundred and ninety-one items. Textual sources (academic literature and literature from ancient Egypt) were then consulted to support and/or expand on the iconographic, symbolic, and functional aspects of the motif: - At the iconographic level, the historical development and ‘structural dynamics’ of the motif are investigated to deduce the artistic rules that applied to its creation. - At the symbolic level, the symbolic meaning of the artwork is ascertained by theorizing on the meaning of the motif and its parts in an Egyptian context. - At the functional level, the function of the artwork is ascertained by investigating how the motif’s symbolism was intended to be applied to benefit the individual. The results of this research is that the avian motif developed over time according to strict artistic rules; that it symbolized the king, eternity and protection; and that its function was to protect the king in all phases of his existence in a political and mythological context in order to ensure that the he would attain an eternal life in the afterlife. In the mind of the ancient Egyptian this was achieved through the transference of the avian motif’s magical qualities to the user. The intended outcome of this study is to highlight the avian motif’s importance in the context of the ancient Egyptian culture.
Bit by bit : an iconographic study of horses in the reliefs of the Assyrian king Ashurnasirpal II (883 - 859 BC)
(Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 2014-03) Baldwin, Stephanie; Cornelius, I.; Stellenbosch University. Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences. Dept. of Ancient Studies.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The focus of this study is to investigate the role that horses played in the Ancient Near East, specifically during the reign of the Neo-Assyrian king Ashurnasirpal II (883-859BC). By studying nine of the reliefs from the North-West Palace at Nimrud, the function of horses with regard to warfare during that time was explored. The analysis included an examination of all horses and equine tack, which consists of chariots, bridles, bits, breastplates and decorations. The reliefs are studied by using Erwin Panofsky’s Theoretical Scheme, which allows for three stages of analysis. Each of the reliefs is examined as a whole, in order to place the relief in context, followed by a detailed breakdown of the horses, specifically their body language, as well as their tack and the function thereof. It was found that the Assyrians used the horses’ body language to help set the tone of the relief, as the horses would display aggressive body language when under attack and relaxed body language when not under attack, for example reliefs showing parades or military camps. It was also noted that the horses of the enemies were illustrated in such a way as to show the prowess of the victorious Neo-Assyrian army. It was found that horses were instrumental in warfare as well as depicting status and rank within the military structures.
A comparison of ancient Egyptian and ancient Hebrew religious cosmogonies
(Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 1995-12) Gwala, Mzonzima; Cornelius, I.; Stellenbosch University. Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences. Dept. of Ancient Studies.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The phenomenological approach employed in this comparative study of ancient Egyptian and ancient Hebrew religions cosmogonies, takes care of the gaps between the various cosmogonies. This is also true of the gaps in time between the ancient Egyptian cosmogonies and those of the Hebrew Bible. The study indicated that Ancient Egypt and the ancient lsraelit:;s did not exist in isolation, although each community was unique in its own context. Myth as one of the most central concepts in the study of cosmogonies, has fundamental value both in ancient Egyptian understanding as well as that of the ancient Israelites. Examples of ancient Egyptian cosmogonies as well as different versions of ancient Hebrew cosmogonies were discussed. Three types of ancient Egyptian cosmogonies (Heliopolitan, Theban and Hermopolis) explained in this paper were shown to be complementary to each other; the same idea (i .e. complementary) was not foreign in the ancient Hebrew cosmogonies (Genesis 1 and 2). God and the gods played a very significant role with regard to human beings, being either a servant of or owing his or her allegiance to God/the gods as his or her creator. There are significant similarities in the way these two communities understood the notion of cosmogony, but in the same breath, remarkable differences were also witnessed throughout the discussion of these various cosmogonies, hence the use of the term "distinctive and common ground in the ancient Near East" with special reference to ancient Egypt and the Hebrew Bible.
Foreign rulers of the Nile : a reassessment of the cultural contribution of the Hyksos in Egypt
(Stellenbosch : University of Stellenbosch, 2006-03) Bronn, Johanna Aletta; Cornelius, I.; University of Stellenbosch. Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences. Dept. of Ancient Studies.
The time between the Middle and New Kingdoms in Ancient Egypt is known as the Second Intermediate Period. It was the time during which Egypt, for the first time in its history, lost autonomy and the inhabitants of Egypt became the vassals of the Hyksos, a name transcribed by Manetho, a historian of the third century BCE as 'shepherd kings', but which actually designated 'princes of foreign lands'. The term 'Hyksos' at first referred to the rulers only, but later became the accepted word to indicate the rulers, the people themselves and everything pertaining to them. The Hyksos were not a homogenous race, but were a conglomerate of peoples from the Near East. For centuries people from the east had been filtering into Egypt. Transhumants and nomads came in search of pasture for their animals and elected to stay. Others were employed by the Egyptian administration as ship-builders and mining engineers or as workers in the copper and turquoise mines in the Sinai. These workers were all settled in the Delta, the hub of mining and shipbuilding activities. Others were slaves who were dispersed all over Egypt as workers in households and on farms. Despite Egypt's best efforts to keep out Asiatics who wanted to enter the country of their own volition, their fortresses on the border between Egypt and Sinai proved ineffective, especially when the Egyptian administration faltered and collapsed during the Seventeenth Dynasty. It is still a point debated by historians whether a strong military force from the East overran Egypt in c.1658 BCE or whether the transition from Egyptian rule to Hyksos rule was a gradual and comparatively peaceful process. There is evidence that the Hyksos were supported by many Egyptians who collaborated with the Hyksos and who even served in the Hyksos administration which lasted from c. 1658 – 1550 BCE. However, the vassal princes in Upper Egypt saw the Hyksos as usurpers and amassed forces to expel the enemy. This they achieved in c. 1550 BCE, after which it was possible to once again unite Upper and Lower Egypt. This thesis probes the rule of the Hyksos and the influence they might have had on Egyptian culture. Part One (chapters 2-7) deals with the Hyksos per se: their origin, their rise to power, their rule, and how they were expelled. Part Two (chapters 8-12) investigates the Hyksos culture and has a close look at their architecture, arts and crafts, burial practices, warfare and weapons, and religion. Part Three (chapter 13) examines the influence the Hyksos might have had on Egyptian culture, with special attention to architecture, burial practices, arts and crafts, warfare and weapons, and religion. Chapter 14 rounds off the thesis and comes to the conclusion that the Hyksos made very little impact on the Egyptian culture in general, but contributed greatly to Egypt's development in warfare and weapons, and also for a period exerted some influence on religious practices, especially in the Delta. Finally, the Hyksos contributed to Egypt's altered world vision by forcing them to shed their complacency, which in turn opened the way to expansionism in countries in the Near East.
The form, function and symbolism of standards in ancient Mesopotamia during the Third and Fourth Millennia BCE : an iconographical Study
(Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 2016-03) Van Dijk, Renate Marian; Cornelius, I.; Stellenbosch University. Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences. Dept. of Ancient Studies.
ENGLISH SUMMARY: A standard can be defined as a long shaft with a sign or emblem attached to the top which may be held or which may stand on the ground. Standards are represented in Mesopotamian art from the emergence of the first city-states in the fourth millennium BCE until the first millennium BCE. This study examines how standards are depicted in the iconographic record of the third and fourth millennia BCE by examining their form, function and symbolism. Perhaps the most well-known type of standard is the battle standard, but there were also other types of standards — divine standards, royal standards, standards in ritual context, standards in judicial procedures, architectural, ritual, and city standards. The iconographic sources include glyptic art, or cylinder seals, as well as representations on vessels, inlays, plaques, stelae or stelae fragments, and rare examples of extant standards. A catalogue of all known iconographic representations of standards is provided. These examples are presented and compared, and commonalities and differences are identified and examined. The study is laid out in seven chapters. Chapter 1 provides the methodological framework for the study. Chapter 2 follows as a short background to the period under discussion, the third and fourth millennia BCE, providing a general context for the discussion. The main discussion of standards begins from Chapter 3. The standards of the four periods under consideration — namely, the Uruk, Early Dynastic, Akkadian and Neo-Sumerian periods — are discussed in Chapter 3, Chapter 4, Chapter 5 and Chapter 6 respectively. Each standard represented in each period is discussed in turn and some preliminary summaries and conclusions are presented. In Chapter 7 the findings from Chapters 3-6 are presented, analysed and interpreted. This entails first a discussion on the different standards themselves, then an evaluation of the different functions or the different contexts within which these standards are depicted, and thereafter a brief summary of each of the four periods under discussion is provided.
The Goddess Hathor and the women of ancient Egypt
(Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 2012-03) Basson, Danielle; Cornelius, I.; Stellenbosch University. Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences. Dept. of Ancient Studies.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: In studying ancient Egypt researchers have a great advantage, in that there is a multitude of recorded material to draw from. Unfortunately for anyone interested in studying ancient Egyptian women, the recorded material was most often recorded by, commissioned by, and concerned with, men; royal or high-ranking men to be precise (Robins, 1993: 11-12). Thus, we must look into non-textual artefacts and offerings which may have a symbolic meaning. Though, the textual sources should not be neglected, since these may hold clues to the position and perception of women in society: perceptions held by men. This thesis has drawn largely on art and artefacts to investigate the relationship between women in ancient Egypt and the goddess Hathor. Women are traditionally the mothers, caretakers and homemakers of society. But they are not only that. Women are also individuals, capable of individual thought, feelings, anxieties, hopes and dreams; and like their male counterparts, women also experience religion. But, as was clearly displayed in the thesis, Egyptian women not only experienced religion, they lived religion. In the ancient Egyptian context there was no escaping religion. It must also be understood that the ancient Egyptians thought that the man was the seat of creation and that semen was the essence of creation (according to the cosmogony of Heliopolis, cf. Cooney, 2008: 2). A failure to conceive would be placed directly upon the shoulders of the woman, and could be grounds enough for divorce (Robins, 1993: 63). Women in ancient societies served the main function of child-rearing. This may seem backward, but it was an essential function, without which society would cease to function. When a woman failed to conceive, she in essence failed her function as a woman; many women (and men) in this situation turned to religion. This is where this thesis topic comes into play, since Hathor was a goddess of sexuality and fertility, but also had aspects of safeguarding and caretaking. Women were naturally drawn to her and she developed a large cult following, with cult centres scattered throughout Egypt. Not only were many of her followers female, but her priests were also female (Gillam, 1995: 211-212). Hathor might have been the most relatable of the goddesses because of her dual-nature; she is a caretaker and sexual being, but she can also become fierce and even bloodthirsty. Devotion to Hathor was widespread, with cult centres at Deir el-Bahari, Faras, Mirgissa, Serabit el-Khadim, Timna, Gebel Zeit and elsewhere, each with its own large deposit of votive offerings (Pinch, 1993). Hathor is also referenced in letters between females in a family, as one daughter writes to her mother: “May Hathor gladden you for my sake” (Wente, 1990: 63). It is because of this that this thesis investigated to what an extent ancient Egyptian women had a relationship with her.
Die gode is naby
(Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 2003-03) Ponelis, I. A. (Isabella Annanda); Cornelius, I.; Stellenbosch University. Faculty of Arts & Social Sciences. Dept. of Ancient Studies .
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The rise of Ancient Egyptian civilization by the end of the fourth millennium BC was essentially a religious process. The civilization developed from a religious core that was formed by and in the Nile valley. Metaphors were drawn from the context of the Nile to represent deities. In different epochs and at different places, creation myths attempted explaining the mystery of the origin of god and man. According to these myths, both god and man were created by a primal being after it had brought itself into being. In an attempt to depict different facets of deities, various metaphors were used. One and the same god could be represented as a human and as an animal. Nonetheless, all deities possessed human features and all functioned in human structures. In the primal state mankind and the gods coexisted in harmony. When man rebelled this harmony was shattered, and the gods left the world of man. After the gods had left earth they could be approached only by a mediator. The role of mediator was played by the pharaoh. It was the pharaoh's mission to maintain the order on earth that had been present since creation. Inthe office as high priest of all cults it was incumbent on the pharaoh to keep the gods satisfied by ensuring them of the maintenance of Ma'at. In this the pharaoh as god-king was assisted by a hierarchy of priests who performed cult rituals in temples and sacrificed to the gods. To a great extent, ordinary people were excluded from formal religion and resorted to popular or demotic religion. The dominant role of artefacts in death and grave rituals does not signify an obsession with death. All rituals and artefacts were involved in maintaining life after death, and the afterlife was something that Ancient Egyptians implicitly believed in. Admission to life after death required a morally sound and just life, which was determined in the judgement ceremony when the deeds of the deceased were placed on a scale weighted with the feather of Ma'at. Religion, with the pharaoh at its centre, permeated every aspect of daily life in Ancient Egypt.
Hatshepsut and Nefertiti : a study of two Egyptian queens
(Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 1996) Kirchner, Geraldene; Cornelius, I.; Stellenbosch University. Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences. Dept. of Ancient Studies.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This study attempts to answer the question how and why Hatshepsut and Nefertiti attained pharaonic prominence in a mainly patriarchal society. It follows a cultural-anthropological approach through an assessment of the interrelatedness of aspects such as religion, state organization, social life etc. It aims at studying the history and culture of the mid - Eighteenth Dynasty from different angles: from archaeological artefacts, iconography, etc. The aforesaid has enabled me to find startling similarities in the manner how the two queens attained pharaonic prominence which again are juxtaposed by reasons proffered as to why they achieved these elevated positions. In finding answers to the questions raised, I attempted to refrain from making sweeping general conclusions from limited evidence, especially in Nefertiti's case. Both Hatshepsut and Nefertiti attained pharaonic prominence with the support of important male members in the government. Both queens are also characterized by a strength in character. After the death of her father and husband in a short space of time, Hatshepsut ascended the throne as a form of "defence mechanism" to ensure dynastic succession and property continuity in the light of an apparent unavailability of eligible royal males in the consanguineal clan. Nefertiti displayed a similar strength in character when she moved from Thebes to the unknown to found a new capital city with Akhenaten. A manipulation of the economic system by both queens should not be negated. Hatshepsut as fountainhead of the state controlled the Treasury, placated the officialdom and secured a smooth transference of kingship to her after seven years in her co - regency with Thutmose III. Money paid to officials from the treasury of the Disk, coupled to Nefertiti's queenly influence on Akhenaten, ensured the unusual prominence of Nefertiti at Thebes and Akhetaten. No real evidence has surfaced to prove why Akhenaten acknowledged Nefertiti as co - regent, other that Nefertiti acted as Queen Regnant and enjoyed unsurpassed religious prominence. The aforesaid is aptly emphasize by the following: the 1986 find of the Nefertiti scarab at Ulu Burun that is inscribed with the longer form of Nefertiti's name. The Petrie find of a broken stone stelae inscribed with the two names of Akhenaten, namely the epithet "Beloved" and the longer form of Nefertiti's name "Nefernefruaton" furthermore exemplified a perception of Nefertiti's regal and religious importance. The fact that the name "Nefernefruaton" is preceded in kingly fashion by the name Ankhkeprure, aptly emphasize the aforesaid. As more archaeological data and written evidence accumulate, a more complete picture may arise according to which Nefertiti could be perceived as sole ruler and whether she could be perceived as the impetus to Akhenaten's religious revolution.
Iconographic motifs from Palestine/Israel and Daniel 7:2-14
(Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 1998-12) Eggler, Jurg; Cornelius, I.; University of Stellenbosch. Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences. Dept. of Ancient Studies.
This is an iconographic study of the motifs of the sea, lion, wings, horns and the enthroned in the iconography of Palestine/Israel with reference to the vision of Dan 7:2-14
Iconography as biography : a study of the Middle Kingdom Egyptian tombs at Beni Hasan, el-Bersha and Meir (c.2040-1840 B.C.)
(Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 1995-12) Baines, Alice Victoria; Cornelius, I.; Stellenbosch University. Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences. Dept. of Ancient Studies.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The intention of this dissertation is to substantiate the hypothesis that biography in iconographic form occured in certain Middle Kingdom tombs of provinsial governors of the 14th, 15h and 16th Upper Egyptian nomes. Assumed initially to have been an individual idiosyncrasy of particular tomb owners, it is now proposed that it was in fact the manifestation of a general trend which had been developing over a given perdiod. It is also proposed that while this trend can be traced from its gradual development in the latter part of the Old Kingdom in a number of tombs, it can be seen exemplified to its best advantage in its developing and developed form in certain tombs at Beni Hasan. In addition to identifying certain iconography as biographical. the intention is to justify this conclusion by examining the religious, social and historical conditions which brought this about and which eventually led to its discontinuation. In order to do this the following aspects are discussed:- 1. The nature of iconography, the nature and rules of narrative, which must be present in biographical matter, and the ability of iconography to comply with such rules. 2. The geographical and historical background to the existence of the tombs under discussion. 3. The development of Egyptian tomb art as bearing on the decorativ content of certain tombs and the canonical religious symbolism inherent in the murals both iconographic and hieroglyphic, in order to differentiate between this symbolism and the iconographic biography which it introduced. 4. The religious concepts applicable to funerary observances and tomb preperation at that time are investigated to endeavour to ascertain the extent of conformity with these concepts relative to the construction of the tombs under review. 5. The social conditions extant at the period in which the proposed biographical trend developed are examined with a view to their possible influence relative to that trend. 6. In the main the views and conclusions expressed in this dissertation have been reached by adhering to hermeneutic principles of interpretaion and comprhension.
Maät : die god wat in elkeen is
(Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 2003-03) Ponelis, I. A. (Isabella Annanda); Cornelius, I.; Stellenbosch University. Faculty of Arts & Social Sciences. Dept. of Ancient Studies.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The concept of Ma'at is crucial to Ancient Egyptian culture. In Ancient Egypt, Ma'at has two closely related manifestations: the cultural principle and the goddess. Ma'at as general cultural principle relates to the perfect order that was present at the moment when the cosmos came into being. This order eliminated chaos and created perfect balance in every aspect of the cosmos: nature, mankind, the gods, life and death. According to Ancient Egyptian literature, people ordered their lives in terms of the principle to do Ma 'at. This principle amounted to living honestly and justly. In this way, order was maintained and chaos prevented. In religion, which should be considered a subdomain of culture, Ma'at functions as an Ancient Egyptian goddess. As a goddess, Ma'at was considered a being in her own right, with a characteristic appearance, a history, and a cult which was performed by the pharaoh and the priests. Though the conception ofMa'at developed considerably in the long history of Ancient Egypt, the idea was present at the beginning of Egyptian civilization, as is attested by a great variety of inscriptions. The concept played a significant role in this culture from beginning to end. Ma'at was of particular importance to Ancient Egyptian royalty. Royal office included the realization of Ma'at and the consequent destruction ofIsfet. This function was performed by the pharaoh as chief of all cults - by daily sacrifice for Ma'at --, as well as in his role as ruler - by ensuring that public office was performed according to the principle ofMa'at. The Ancient Egyptians maintained that Ma'at functioned not only in life but also in death. In the alternative reality that Ancient Egypt made of death, order obtained, just as in life. Hence Ma' at was present also in death. The essence of Ancient Egypt is not its structures, such as the pyramids, which never cease to fascinate. This essence has to be sought in the way Ma'at gave unity to this remarkable culture.
The motives for the mesarum edict of King Ammiṣaduqa of the old Babylonian period : ethics, ego or economics?
(Stellenbosch : University of Stellenbosch, 2008-03) Gaertner, Lorraine; Cornelius, I.; University of Stellenbosch. Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences. Dept. of Ancient Studies.
Ammißaduqa, penultimate king of the Ôammurabi dynasty in the Old Babylonian period, reigned from 1646-1626 BCE, and issued a mēšarum edict which Finkelstein described as “a single tablet, inscribed with a most unique text of an importance for the socio-economic life of Babylonia second to no other.” It is essential to define ancient royal edicts within their cultural context. This thesis examines, within the broad legal, religious, political and social background of the Ancient Near East, the design of royal edicts, their aims, beneficiaries and legal implications. The primary goal of this thesis is to improve our understanding of the motives for the promulgation of mēšarum decrees within the ancient cultures, and in particular, the motives for Ammißaduqa’s first edict. There is a strong scholarly tendency to seek the motives in the economic faction, even likening this decree to a “modern-day economic stimulus package,” a type of “RDP”. Kraus noted that the first promulgation was designed and executed for ideological purposes, subsequent mēšarum edicts were economic emergency measures. Nel agreed that the proclamation of a mēšarum was part of the propaganda strategy to strengthen the royal administration and to legitimize its power. The mēšarum was not designed to bring prosperity, but to stimulate agricultural production and prevent uncontrolled urbanization. Olivier noted that the mēšarum was intended, not to reform the economic system, but to remedy the unbearable economic situation. The economic motive is therefore of prime importance for all subsequent edicts, although an overlapping of all three motives – ethics, ego and economy – is highly likely. The base-line conclusion is that the motive and the occasion are inseparable. The aim of this thesis was to produce sufficient evidence that king Ammißaduqa was primarily inspired by ethics and ego, and not economics, when declaring his first mēšarum edict.
The 'myth' of Cleopatra : a reception-historical study
(Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 1999-12) Breytenbach, Malene M.; Cornelius, I.; Stellenbosch University. Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences. Dept. of Ancient Studies.
ENGLISH SUMMARY: Cleopatra VII of Egypt (69-30 BCE) has a protean story. She was a woman of variety, great appeal and passion. She was also an astute politician. Her charisma and eventful life as the "last pharaoh" of Egypt, the last of the Ptolemaic line that assumed power after the death of Alexander the Great, have been described in various histories and tales. She was one of the protagonists at a cataclysmic time in world history, when the Roman empire was expanding. The Greek historian Plutarch included her history in his lives of the great Greeks and Romans as she had captured the emotions of two very powerful Romans, firstly Julius Caesar by whom she had a son named Caesarion, and secondly Mark Antony. The Cleopatra myth was born in the second half of the first century BCE, after the assassination of Caesar. His successors, Mark Antony and Octavian (who was to become Caesar Augustus) were competing for power after having punished Caesar's murderers. At first they divided the Roman world among them. As the most influential and experienced, Mark Antony chose as his arena of power the richest and most important part, the Oriental Mediterranean, the jewel and breadbasket of which was Egypt. He became allied to its queen, Cleopatra, and together they strove to regain the empire of Alexander the Great. Octavian had taken possession of the western part of the Mediterranean which included Rome. As he feared Cleopatra's power, coveted the wealth of Egypt and resented her influence on Antony, he launched a successful and virulent propaganda war against her, before actually declaring war on her and emerging victorious from the struggle. Cleopatra was therefore depicted by ancient writers and historians as a depraved, luxurious and cruel Oriental despot who ruled men by passion and unnatural temptation. She was accused of having emasculated Antony and alienated him from his Roman compatriots. U sing these sources, writers such as William Shakespeare and George Bernard Shaw carried on the negative tradition. So did other authors, as well as the masters of art and fllms. The Cleopatra of popular tradition became an enchantress rather than an ambitious intellectual and astute politician. Her story contained a great deal of disinformation and "myth". She was perceived in history, literature and the visual arts as a symbol on which the creators projected their own views and desires. Her image has been received according to the tradition and "reality" of period and place, as art mirrors values and beliefs.
Profiling Punt : using trade relations to locate 'God's Land'
(Stellenbosch : University of Stellenbosch, 2008-03) Glenister, Catherine Lucy; Cornelius, I.; University of Stellenbosch. Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences. Dept. of Ancient Studies.
The geographical location of Punt has been the subject of much scholarly controversy for years. Numerous locations have been provided, favouring either regions in southern Arabia or East Africa. The latter being the more accepted theory in this case. Locating the region of Punt is linked to the foreign trade relations of Egypt during the Dynastic period. The practices that governed the Egyptian economy and thus its trade relations are studied, along with textual translations and visual sources in order to determine the kind of contact Egypt had with Punt, the trade relations between these two regions and the commodities they traded. These things determine the landscape that Puntites traversed, providing a profile of their habitat, the people that lived in it and thus a possible location for the region, which is believed to encompass the Gash Delta, on the borders of modern day Eritrea, Ethiopia and Sudan.
The reception of Genesis 1-3 in Nguni culture
(Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 2011-12) Gwala, Mzonzima; Cornelius, I.; Thipa, H.; University of Stellenbosch. Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences. Dept. of Ancient Studies.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This dissertation looks at the reception of Gen. 1-3, one of the most controversial parts in the Hebrew Bible. How was it interpreted by the Nguni speaking communities (e.g. Xhosa, Zulu, siSwazi and siNdebele) taking into consideration their background, culture and religious belief system? The reception approach is followed in the research because of its emphasis on the role of the reader in understanding texts. Sources that are utilized are Nguni Bible translations, selected preached sermons (which the researcher attended himself), Nguni stories and folk tales and reviews undertaken among selected Nguni groups. A close-reading of the texts under discussion is undertaken in order to determine the basic content and issues of interpretation involved. The central concepts of cosmogony as contained in Gen. 1-2 are studied, as well as the story of the Garden of Eden and the concept of the “fall” in Gen. 3. The map of the Nguni language group is described and the culture and belief system of the Nguni speaking communities. Central concepts to this belief system are the worship of ancestors, marriage, circumcision, and among the Swazis the incwala (annual national feast) Legends and folk tales were used as sources for the Nguni belief system. It was determined that the Nguni speaking people worshipped one God in their traditional way, but always through their ancestors as a sign of respect. The role of the missionaries is analyzed by describing the history of the various missionary societies and their influence on the Nguni peoples. A very short discussion is devoted to preached sermons by Nguni pastors in the Seventh-day Adventist Church.Bible translations have always played a very important role among Nguni speakers (both Christians and non-believers). The need for translations using understandable contemporary terms is emphasized. This is the challenge to the Bible societies and Bible translators. Qualitative reviews were undertaken under selected Nguni speaking groups (Xhosa, Zulu, siSwati and siNdebele). Some of the results obtained from these reviews (full transcripts are included) are: (1) that there is a common understanding of the origin of the universe between the Hebrew Bible and the Nguni religious culture. (2) Serpent (Gen. 3): among the Zulus this concept is understood in terms of sexuality, but it can also be linked with the ancestors. (3) Both communities (Hebrew Bible and the Nguni) were tainted with the concept and ideology of patriarchalism. The crucial question in the research was: “what happens when a cosmogonic myth is transferred from one community to another?” In the case of Gen. 1-3 an ancient Hebrew text was transmitted to African cultures via missionaries and Bible translations. Nguni people react differently. Whereas some accept Gen. 1-3 (cosmogonies and the “fall”) as a detailed explanation of how creation and the “fall” came about, others reject it.

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